Umberto Eco, in his 1995 essay "Ur-Fascism" (also known as "Eternal Fascism"), outlined 14 features or signs that define what he called "Ur-Fascism," or the foundational elements of fascism that can reappear in different forms over time. Here's a summarized version of those signs:
The cult of tradition – A belief in a primordial truth, revealed once and for all, often combining different religious or philosophical traditions.
The rejection of modernism – A distrust of Enlightenment rationalism, often accompanied by a rejection of progress and reason.
The cult of action for action’s sake – Believing action is inherently good and should be pursued without reflection.
Disagreement is treason – Critical thinking is viewed with suspicion; dissent is equated with betrayal.
Fear of difference – Racism or xenophobia; fear of outsiders and minorities.
Appeal to a frustrated middle class – Fascism often exploits the fears and insecurities of a struggling or declining middle class.
Obsession with a plot – Belief in conspiracies, often involving an "enemy" or scapegoat plotting against the nation.
The enemy is both strong and weak – The enemy is portrayed as overwhelmingly powerful, yet cowardly and weak at the same time.
Pacifism is trafficking with the enemy – Life is permanent warfare; peacefulness is seen as weakness.
Contempt for the weak – Elitism and disdain for the vulnerable or marginalized.
Everybody is educated to become a hero – Glorification of death, martyrdom, and militarism.
Machismo and weaponry – Exaggerated masculinity, violence, and control over women.
Selective populism – The “people” are represented by a leader who interprets their will, bypassing institutions and pluralism.
Newspeak – Use of impoverished, repetitive language to limit critical thinking and expression.